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| England</b></td> |
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| <p align="center"><b><a href="../../../0_contents.htm">0</a> Contents <a href="../../../2_background.htm">2</a> Background <a |
| href="../../2-5_societal.htm">2.5</a> Societal <a href="../2-5-0_vistas-past.htm">2.5.2</a> Vistas <a |
| href="../0-000-043-000-bc-to_2-011-ad_2-5-5_celtic-tribes.htm">2.5.2.5</a> Celtic</b></td> |
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| <p align="right"><b> Celtic <a href="../0-000-043-000-bc-to_2-011-ad_2-5-5_celtic-tribes.htm">2.5.2.5</a><img border="0" |
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| <h2>2.5.2.5.8 Belgic tribes of the East Midlands and South-Eastern England <b><input type="button" name="B2" value="Return" onclick="history.back();" |
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| <ul> |
| <b> |
| <li><a href="#Introduction">Introduction</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Atrebates">Atrebates</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Belgae">Belgae</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Cantiaci">Cantiaci</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Catuvellauni">Catuvellauni</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Corieltauvi">Corieltauvi</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Iceni">Iceni</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Regni">Regni</a></li> |
| <li><a href="#Trinovantes">Trinovantes</a></li> |
| </b><b> |
| <li><a href="#Notes">Notes</a></li> |
| </b> |
| </ul> |
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| </div> |
| <p align="left"><a name="Introduction"></a></p> |
| <h2 align="left"><a href="#">Introduction</a></h2> |
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| <td valign="top" style="border-style: solid; border-color: #FFFFFF"><img class="left" title="Ambiani gold stater, 125-100 BC" |
| alt="Ambiani gold stater, 125-100 BC" src="0-000-043-000-bc-to_2-011-ad_2-5-5-08/AmbianiLargeFlanGoldStater.jpg" width="174" height="165"></td> |
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| <td valign="top" style="border-style: solid; border-color: #FFFFFF"><a href="http://www.celticcoins.com/"><img class="right" |
| title="Coin-using tribes of late Iron Age Britain" alt="Coin-using tribes of late Iron Age Britain" |
| src="0-000-043-000-bc-to_2-011-ad_2-5-5-08/Coin-using-tribes.jpg" width="379" height="403"></a></td> |
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| <div id="content"> |
| <p><b>In the two centuries before the Claudian invasion of Britain, the south of the country was subjected first to raiding and then to settlement by an |
| earlier wave of invaders - the Belgae of north-east Gaul - who left no history of these events. We have to piece together the story from comments by Julius |
| Caesar and the clues in the ground. Belgic tribes in Britain can be identified archaeologically by oppida, wheel-thrown pottery and the minting of their own |
| coinage. Linguistically they differed so little from Brythonic-speaking Britons that we cannot detect their presence from place-names. The earliest coins |
| appear on both sides of the Channel. The first and most spectacular type has been identified with the Ambiani, since it is found in their Somme Valley |
| territory. A later type, issued between c. 90 and 60 BC, may be associated with King Diviciacus of the Suessiones, remembered as a powerful king in both in |
| Gaul and Britain.<sup><a class="note">1<span>Caesar,<cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, II.4; An introduction to British Celtic coinage, from the online Celtic Coin |
| Index, maintained by Oxford University.</span></a></sup>The fact that neither of these tribes was mentioned by Ptolemy suggests that the political situation |
| in southern Britain was fluid. An over-king could exact tribute from other tribes, so the Suessiones need not necessarily have had a colony in Britain. Yet |
| the general picture is one of tribes vying for territory, one ousting another, so a colony could have come and gone. The Roman invasion put a stop to |
| inter-tribal warfare and so froze the polities as they happened to stand in 43 AD, except where the Romans restored lands to their allies. The tribal |
| boundaries shown on the map are deduced partly from pre-Roman coinage distributions and partly from Ptolemy. They thus conflate the pre and post-Roman |
| situation and should be seen as only roughly indicative.</b></p> |
| <ul> |
| <li><b><em id="Atrebates"><a href="#">Atrebates</a></em><a href="#">:</a> Lived next to the Dobunni. Their town was Calleva (<q>town in the woods</q>) [<a |
| href="http://www.silchester.rdg.ac.uk/">Silchester</a>, Hampshire], which appears in the <cite>Antonine Itinerary</cite> as Calleva Atrebatum.<sup><a |
| class="note">2<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; T. Codrington, <cite>The Roman Roads in Britain</cite> (1903), introduction.</span></a></sup> |
| The Romano-British town was built on the site of a <a href="http://www.silchester.rdg.ac.uk/guide/preroman">Belgic settlement</a> densly occupied c. 25 BC |
| by a Romanised population. The Atrebates share a name with a tribe of the Gaulish Belgae living in the neighbourhood of Arras. After the conquest of the |
| Gaulish branch of the tribe by Caesar, he installed a picked man as their king - Commius, whom he sent to Britain to pave the way for his short-lived |
| invasion. Caesar tells us that Commius was respected in Britain, which suggests that some <cite>Atrebates</cite> were already living there. Commius later |
| turned against Rome and was a thorn in Caesar's side.<sup><a class="note">3<span>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, IV.21, VII, 75-6, 79, VIII, 6-7, 10, |
| 47-8.</span></a></sup> After Caesar crushed the final rebellion of the Gauls, Commius fled to Britain.<sup><a class="note">4<span>Sextus Julius Frontinus, |
| <cite>The Strategemata</cite>, II.xiii.11.</span></a></sup> Commius issued coins from around 45-30 BC. Coins inscribed COM COMMIUS suggest that he was |
| followed by a son of the same name. Three men explicitly stating on their coins that they were sons of Commius might therefore be the grandsons of the |
| friend-turned-enemy of Caesar. Coins of Tincomarus son of Commius cluster on the south coast around Chichester. So he would have been the king who was |
| supported by a Roman presence (arriving between 10 BC and 10 AD) whose remains were found near Fishbourne Roman Palace.<sup><a class="note">5<span>M. |
| Russell, <cite>Bloodline: The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), p. 76.</span></a></sup> Tincomarus seems to have fled to Rome. Two British |
| kings are mentioned as having taken refuge with Augustus in the monumental text recording his deeds. One name is incomplete, but begins Tim... Perhaps he |
| was ousted by his brother Eppillus, whose coins proclaim him REX (king) and carry the marks CALLE or CALLEV, indicating that they were issued at Calleva. |
| From around 10 AD Verica, a third son of Commius, began to issue coins. Epaticcus, brother of Cunobelin, King of the Catuvellauni, conquered Calleva in |
| about 25 AD. Then Cunobelin's son Caratacos conquered the entire kingdom after 40 AD,<sup><a class="note">6<span><cite>Res Gestae Divi Augusti</cite>, 32; |
| Celtic Coin Index.</span></a></sup> driving Verica to seek refuge and allies in Rome. Verica persuaded the Emperor Claudius to send a force to Britain in |
| 43 AD. Verica may have died before he could be restored to his kingdom, for it was Togidubnus who became a client king within Roman rule.<sup><a |
| class="note">7<span>Cassius Dio, Roman History, 60.19 - refers to "Berikos", generally taken to be Vericos; Tacitus, <cite>Agricola</cite> and <cite>Germania</cite>, |
| trans. H. Mattingly, with notes by J.B. Rives (2009), Agricola 14, and note 48.</span></a></sup> By Ptolemy's day it seems that his territory had been |
| split, with the Regni as a separate civitas. Further reading: Simon Bean, <cite>Coinage of the Atrebates and Regni</cite> (Oxford University School of |
| Archaeology Monographs 2000).</b></li> |
| <li><b><em id="Belgae"><a href="#">Belgae</a></em><a href="#">:</a> Lived south of the Dobunni. According to Ptolemy their towns were Ischalis |
| [Charterhouse, Somerset], Hot springs [Bath] and Venta [Winchester].<sup><a class="note">8<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. |
| Koch, <cite>An Atlas for Celtic Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.</span></a></sup> The last of the three appears on the Peutinger Map and in the <cite>Antonine |
| Itinerary</cite> as Venta Belgarum,<sup><a class="note">9<span>T. Codrington, <cite>The Roman Roads in Britain</cite> (1903), introduction.</span></a></sup> |
| evidently the civitas capital. The label Belgae, rather than a tribal name, suggests that this civitas was a creation of the Romans. The inclusion of Bath |
| and Charterhouse among their towns would make the territory an odd shape. This may have been a short-term solution solution to a complex political |
| situation, lumping together the southern part of the Dobunni with other tribes. The map shown here places Bath and Charterhouse within the territory of |
| the Dobunni, as judged by their pre-Roman coin spread. Miles Russell argues that after the Roman conquest, the civitas of the Belgae was one of the |
| regions initially placed under the control of Togidubnus as a client king, and that he was responsible for the construction of the temple of Sulis Minerva |
| at Bath, which became known as Aquae Sulis.<sup><a class="note">10<span>M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), pp. |
| 108-112, 176, caption 82.</span></a></sup></b></li> |
| <li><b><em id="Cantiaci"><a href="#">Cantiaci</a></em><a href="#">:</a> Lived next to the Atrebates, but further east. Their towns were Londinium [London], |
| Durovernum [Canterbury] and Rutupiae [Richborough].<sup><a class="note">11<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. Koch, <cite>An |
| Atlas for Celtic Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.6.</span></a></sup> Durovernum Cantiacorum [Canterbury] evidently acted as the civitas capital. This |
| Romano-British town was built near an Iron Age fort at Bigbury, probably called Durovernon (<q>stronghold of alder</q>) in pre-Roman times. The name was |
| transferred to the new town in Latinised form.<sup><a class="note">12<span>A.L.F. Rivet and C. Smith, <cite>The Place-Names of Roman Britain</cite> |
| (1979), pp. 353-4.</span></a></sup> Londinium was a Roman creation. The promontory of Kantion [Gr.], Cantion [Lat.] (Kent) had that name from at least the |
| first century BC and was considered the most civilised part of Britain in Caesar's day.<sup><a class="note">13<span>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, |
| V.14; Diodorus Siculus, <cite>Bibliotheca Historica</cite>, 5.21.</span></a></sup> It was apparently not one unified kingdom at that point. Four kings of |
| Kent joined the resistance to Caesar's invasion: Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus and Segovax.<sup><a class="note">14<span>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, |
| V.22.</span></a></sup> The coins of Dubnovellaunus, perhaps the King of the Trinovantes of that name, predominate in the area up to around the turn of the |
| millennium. Allowing for common spelling variations, he would seem to be Dumnobellaunus, the other British king who fled to Caesar Augustus. For much of |
| the early first century AD, the coinage of Cunobelin of the Catuvellauni circulated in Kent.<sup><a class="note">15<span><cite>Res Gestae Divi Augusti</cite>, |
| 32; <cite>Celtic Coin Index</cite>.</span></a></sup> However the Romans recognised the people of Cantion as a civitas, which was to become the Kingdom and |
| then the County of Kent after Roman times. As with <a href="http://www.buildinghistory.org/distantpast/celtictribeswales.shtml">Dyfed</a> and <a |
| href="http://www.buildinghistory.org/distantpast/celticswengland.shtml">Dumnonia</a>, there was a degree of continuity in both the name and the territory |
| with the Romano-British civitas. Yet unlike them, Kent was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom. To be precise, Bede declared it to be Jutish. The foundation legend of |
| the kingdom claims that it was given to the brothers Hengest and Horsa in return for their services in defending the country. There may be an element of |
| truth to this. Archaeological evidence from Canterbury hints at Germanic settlers in Kent as early as the late 4th century, perhaps employed as |
| mercenaries. Kent may be the exception to the general rule in Britain that Germanic incomers established their own polities and customs, rather than |
| simply taking over existing ones. When we have evidence later of Kentish customs of inheritance and land-measurement, they prove to be rather different |
| from the Anglo-Saxon norm.<sup><a class="note">16<span>M. Lapidge et al., <cite>The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England</cite> (1999), pp. |
| 269-270.</span></a></sup></b></li> |
| <li><b><em id="Catuvellauni"><a href="#">Catuvellauni</a></em><a href="#">:</a> Lived next to the Corieltauvi. Their towns were Salinae and Verolamion |
| [Saint Albans, Hertfordshire].<sup><a class="note">17<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. Koch, <cite>An Atlas for Celtic |
| Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.6.</span></a></sup> A tribe of the same name lived in Gaul in the valley of the river Matrona (modern-day Marne). |
| Archaeologically the Aylesford-Swarling culture is common to the British Catuvellauni and Trinovantes, and has parallels with that of the Continental |
| Catuvellauni. The tribal name is a compound of catu- (<q>battle, army</q>) and uer-lo (<q>better</q>), meaning <q>excelling in battle</q>. Caesar tells us |
| that the war-leader who opposed him was Cassivellaunus, whose lands were separated from those of the maritime tribes by the river Thames. In Welsh legend |
| he was remembered as Caswallon. Though Cassivellaunus had previously been continually at war with other British tribes, the threat of Roman invasion |
| created a common cause; he was appointed to lead the defence of Britain. His central oppidum, captured by Caesar, was probably that at Wheathampstead. |
| After that was abandoned, nearby Verulamion rose to importance.<sup><a class="note">18<span>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V.11, 20-21; M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: |
| The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), pp. 21, 44; J. T. Koch (ed.), <cite>Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia</cite> (2006), pp. 349-50, |
| 357-8. </span></a></sup>The coins of Tasciovanus were the first to appear with the mint-name VER[ulamion]. He also issued coins bearing the mint mark |
| CAMV[dunon], indicating that the Catuvellauni had taken over the capital of the Trinovantes. He was succeeded by his son Cunobelin (<q>hound of Belenos</q>), |
| who made Camulodunon his capital. Coins of Cunobelin are widespread. The tendrils of his power reached from the east coast to the Severn Estuary, judging |
| by the fact that part of the Dobunni were under Catuvellaunian control in 43 AD. His coinage is also found south of the Thames. This was more than just a |
| trading link, for in the 30s AD a son of his called Amminus issued coins in Kent. Possibly he became too independent to please his father, for he was |
| banished by Cunobelin and fled to the Romans. Catuvellian pressure on the Atrebates was the excuse for the invasion by Claudius in 43 AD. Not |
| surprisingly, the opposition was led by the sons of Cunobelin, Togodumnus and Caratacos, Cunobelin himself having died shortly before. Togodumnus perished |
| in the struggle, making the British determined to avenge his death. Caratacos fled to the Silures, and then to the Brigantes, whose queen surrendered him |
| to the Romans. Paraded as a captive in Rome, he spoke so effectively that the Emperor Claudius pardoned him, his wife and his brothers. <sup><a |
| class="note">19<span>Cassius Dio, Roman History, 60.19-21; Cornelius Tacitus, <cite>The Annals</cite>, 12.32-39; Suetonius, <cite>The Lives of the |
| Caesars: Caligula</cite>, 44; <cite>Celtic Coin Index</cite>.</span></a></sup> Miles Russell spins another story, arguing that Togodumnus, reported by |
| Cassius Dio to have been defeated and killed, was actually the King Togidubnus who acted as Rome's faithful ally.<sup><a class="note">20<span>M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: |
| The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), pp. 100-112, 140-146.</span></a></sup> Further reading: Keith Branigan, <cite>The Catuvellauni</cite> |
| (Peoples of Roman Britain series) (1985).</b></li> |
| <li><b><em><a href="#">Corieltauvi</a></em><a href="#">:</a> They were called the Coritani by Ptolemy, who gave their towns as Lindum [Lincoln] and Ratae |
| [Leicester].<sup><a class="note">21<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2.</span></a></sup> The <cite>Ravenna Cosmography</cite> added |
| its own layer of confusion by giving the name of their capital as Rate Corion Eltavori. The correct reading was recognised from graffiti on a tile found |
| in Churchover referring to the Civitas Corieltauvorum.<sup><a class="note">22<span>R.S.O Tomlin, Roman Leicester, a corrigendum: for <q>Coritani</q>, |
| should we now read <q>Corieltauvi</q>?, <cite>Transactions of the Leicestershire Architectural and Archaeological Society</cite>, vol. 58 (1983), pp. 1-5.</span></a></sup> |
| Further reading: Malcolm Todd, <cite>The Coritani</cite> (Peoples of Roman Britain series) (1991).</b> |
| <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="right" style="border-style: solid; border-color: #FFFFFF"> |
| <tr> |
| <td valign="top" style="border-style: solid; border-color: #FFFFFF"><b><img class="right" title="Boudica, Queen of the Iceni" |
| alt="Boudica, Queen of the Iceni" src="0-000-043-000-bc-to_2-011-ad_2-5-5-08/Boudica.jpg" width="166" height="138"></b></td> |
| </tr> |
| </table> |
| </li> |
| <li><b> <em id="Iceni"><a href="#">Iceni</a></em><a href="#"> or Eceni:</a> Lived next to the Catuvellauni and were related to the town Venta.<sup><a |
| class="note">23<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2. The name appears on their coins with an initial E.</span></a></sup> They were |
| mentioned by Caesar as the Cenimagni (<q>great Ceni</q>).<sup><a class="note">24<span>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V.21.</span></a></sup> Venta |
| Icinorum [Caistor St Edmund's] appears in the <cite>Antonine Itinerary,</cite> while the town's name is rendered Venta Cenomum in the <cite>Ravenna |
| Cosmography</cite>.<sup><a class="note">25<span>T. Codrington, <cite>The Roman Roads in Britain</cite> (1903), introduction; I.A. Richmond and O.G.S. |
| Crawford, The British Section of the Ravenna Cosmography, <cite>Archaeologia</cite>, vol. 93 (1949) pp.1-50.</span></a></sup> This tribe was initially |
| friendly to the Romans, and so were permitted self-rule under Prasutagus as a client king. On his death his wife and daughters were so shamefully treated |
| by Romans that Queen Boudica led a blood-soaked revolt, undoubtedly the most famous episode in the whole history of Roman Britain. Cassius Dio tells us |
| that she was <q>a Briton woman of the royal family and possessed of greater intelligence than often belongs to women... In stature she was very tall, in |
| appearance most terrifying, in the glance of her eye most fierce, and her voice was harsh; a great mass of the tawniest hair fell to her hips; around her |
| neck was a large golden necklace; and she wore a tunic of divers colours over which a thick mantle was fastened with a brooch</q>.<sup><a class="note">26<span>Tacitus, |
| <cite>Agricola</cite>, 16; Cassius Dio, <cite>Roman History</cite>, 62.1-12.</span></a></sup> Further reading: John Davies and Tom Williamson (eds.), <cite>Land |
| of the Iceni: The Iron Age in Northern East Anglia</cite> (Studies in East Anglian History 1999).</b></li> |
| <li><b><em id="Regni"><a href="#">Regni</a></em><a href="#">:</a> Lived south of the Atrebates and the Cantii in Ptolemy's day. Their tribal centre was |
| Noviomagus literally meaning <q>new field</q> [Chichester]. This was a common Romano-Celtic place-name, which generally refers to market towns. We can |
| understand it in the context of the new settlements laid out by the Romans on green-field sites.<sup><a class="note">27<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The |
| Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. Koch, <cite>An Atlas for Celtic Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.6; J. T. Koch, <cite>Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia</cite> |
| (2006), p. 1362.</span></a></sup> The tribal name - <q>the people of the king</q> - evidently refers to the status that King Togidubnus enjoyed as a |
| client king after the Roman conquest. Certain states were presented to him, Tacitus tells us, - <q>an example of the long-established Roman custom of |
| employing even kings to make others slaves</q>.<sup><a class="note">28<span>Tacitus, <cite>Agricola</cite> and <cite>Germania</cite>, trans. H. Mattingly, |
| with notes by J.B. Rives (2009), Agricola 14, and note 48.</span></a></sup> The <a href="http://www.sussexpast.co.uk/property/site.php?site_id=11">palace |
| at Fishbourne</a> near Chichester is presumed to be his. An altar found at Chichester was dedicated <q>To Neptune and Minerva ....by the authority of |
| Tiberius Claudius [To]gidubnus, Great King in Britain</q>.<sup><a class="note">29<span>RIB 91.</span></a></sup> The addition of <q>Tiberius Claudius</q> |
| to his name shows that he had received Roman citizenship at the hands of one of the Claudian emperors. The dedication shows that he was thoroughly |
| Romanised. The title of <q>Great King</q> suggests that he ruled over more peoples than just the Regni. If so, the larger state did not survive as a |
| permanent fixture of the Roman province. The coin scatter of the Atrebates suggests that they had incorporated the Chichester region before Verica was |
| ousted by the Catuvellauni. So it is customary to presume that Togidubnus was a member of the royal house of the Atrebates who had been educated in Rome, |
| perhaps a son of Verica or Tincomarus. Further reading: Barry Cunliffe, <cite>The Regni</cite> (Peoples of Roman Britain series) (1973); Simon Bean, <cite>Coinage |
| of the Atrebates and Regni</cite> (Oxford University School of Archaeology</b> |
| <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="right" style="border-style: solid; border-color: #FFFFFF"> |
| <tr> |
| <td valign="top" style="border-style: solid; border-color: #FFFFFF"><b><img class="right" title="Coin of Cunobelin, with the mint mark of Camulodunon" |
| alt="Coin of Cunobelin, with the mint mark of Camulodunon" src="0-000-043-000-bc-to_2-011-ad_2-5-5-08/CunobelinCoin.jpg" width="325" height="172"></b></td> |
| </tr> |
| </table> |
| <p><a href="#"><b> Monographs 2000).</b></a></li> |
| <li><b><em id="Trinovantes"><a href="#">Trinovantes</a></em><a href="#">:</a> Lived further east than the Iceni, close to the Tamesa [Thames] estuary. Their |
| town was Camulodunon (<q>fortress of Camulos</q>) [Colchester].<sup><a class="note">30<span>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; K. |
| Cameron, <cite>English Place Names</cite> (1996), p.34.</span></a></sup> Their name adds the Celtic intensive prefix tri- (<q>very</q>) to the novio (<q>new, |
| fresh</q>) element noted above in the Novantae of what is now Galloway. The Novantae took their name from that of a river. In the case of the Trinovantes, |
| a meaning related to the people themselves has been suggested, such as <q>very lively</q>. More prosaically, the name could equally well denote theseries |
| of new arrivals north of the Thame latest of a series of arrivals north of the Thames.<sup><a class="note">31<span>The tribal name is rendered Trinobantes |
| in the original Latin version of Caesar's <cite>Gallic Wars</cite> and sources dependent upon it. Since b and v are sometimes hard to distinguish in |
| unfamiliar names, this is no matter for wonder, but Miles Russell enjoys playing with the idea that this could have been their real name: M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: |
| The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), p.21.</span></a></sup> Cassivellaunus killed the king of the Trinovantes, whose son Mandubracius fled to |
| Caesar in Gaul. Thus the Trinovantes supported Caesar's invasion.<sup><a class="note">32<span>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V. 20.</span></a></sup> |
| Yet we hear no more of Mandubracius. The first inscribed coinage to emerge in the north Thames region is that of Addedomaros, perhaps from around 35 BC. |
| He was followed by Dubnovellaunus, whose coins are concentrated in Essex, but also found in Kent. Dubnovellaunus fled to Rome and Tasciovanus of the |
| Catuvellauni issued coins from Camulodonum, as did his son Cunobelin, who made Camulodunon his capital. Thus the oppidum became a focus for Roman attack |
| in the Claudian invasion.<sup><a class="note">33<span><cite>Celtic Coin Index</cite>; Coins of England and the United Kingdom: Spink Standard Catalogue of |
| British Coins 37th ed. (2002), no. 46; Cassius Dio, Roman History, 60.21.</span></a></sup> Once captured, it made a convenient base for the Romans. It was |
| already fortified and had river access to a harbour. The first legionary fortress in Britain was built in the centre of the oppidum for the 20th Legion. |
| When that legion was moved to Glevum [Gloucester] in 49 AD, the settlement was converted into the first Roman colony in Britain, officially named Colonia |
| Claudia Victriensis to celebrate the capture of the former oppidum by Claudius. The degree to which this full ceremonial name was used is uncertain. The |
| place appears in various sources as either Colonia or Camulodunum or Coloniae Victricensis Camulodunum. The town probably functioned as the capital of the |
| Roman province of Britannia until the building of <cite>Londinium</cite> was sufficiently advanced. The veterans planted in the colony treated the whole |
| place as their own, ejecting locals. The bad feeling this caused may explain why the Trinovantes joined Boudica's revolt. Colonia Claudia Victriensis was |
| the natural first target. It was razed to the ground and the inhabitants slaughted in 61 AD. However the colony was rebuilt. The Romano-British town of |
| Caesaromagus [Widford, nr. Chelmsford. Essex] was probably the civitas capital.<sup><a class="note">34<span>J. Wacher, <cite>The Towns of Roman Britain</cite>, |
| 2nd edn. (1995), pp. 112-132, 207-214 and figs.46 and 94; G. de la Bedoyere, <cite>Roman Towns in Britain</cite>, 2nd edn. (2003), appendix 1.</span></a></sup> |
| Further reading: Rosalind Dunnett, <cite>The Trinovantes</cite> (Peoples of Roman Britain series) (1975).</b> |
| <h4 id="Notes0"><a href="#">Notes</a></h4> |
| </li> |
| </ul> |
| <div id="footnotes"> |
| <ol style="font-weight: bold"> |
| <li>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, II.4; An introduction to British Celtic coinage, from the online <cite>Celtic Coin Inde</cite>x, maintained by |
| Oxford University: http://web.arch.ox.ac.uk/coins/ccindex.htm.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; T. Codrington, <cite>The Roman Roads in Britain</cite> (1903), introduction.</li> |
| <li>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, IV.21, VIII, 47-8.</li> |
| <li>Sextus Julius Frontinus, <cite>The Strategemata</cite>, II.xiii.11.</li> |
| <li>M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), p. 76.</li> |
| <li><cite>Res Gestae Divi Augusti</cite>, 32; An introduction to British Celtic coinage, from the online <cite>Celtic Coin Index</cite>, maintained by |
| Oxford University: http://web.arch.ox.ac.uk/coins/ccindex.htm.</li> |
| <li>Cassius Dio, Roman History, 60.19; Tacitus, <cite>Agricola</cite> and <cite>Germania</cite>, trans. H. Mattingly, with notes by J.B. Rives (2009), |
| Agricola 14, and note 48.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. Koch, <cite>An Atlas for Celtic Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.</li> |
| <li>T. Codrington, <cite>The Roman Roads in Britain</cite> (1903), introduction.</li> |
| <li>M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), pp. 108-112, 176, caption 82.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. Koch, <cite>An Atlas for Celtic Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.6.</li> |
| <li>A.L.F. Rivet and C. Smith, <cite>The Place-Names of Roman Britain</cite> (1979), pp. 353-4.</li> |
| <li>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V.20; Diodorus Siculus, <cite>Bibliotheca Historica</cite>, 5.21.</li> |
| <li>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V.22.</li> |
| <li><cite>Res Gestae Divi Augusti</cite>, 32; An introduction to British Celtic coinage, from the online <cite>Celtic Coin Index</cite>, maintained by |
| Oxford University: http://web.arch.ox.ac.uk/coins/ccindex.htm.</li> |
| <li>M. Lapidge et al., <cite>The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England</cite> (1999), pp. 269-270.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. Koch, <cite>An Atlas for Celtic Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.6.</li> |
| <li>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V.11, 20-21; M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), pp. 21, 44; J. T. Koch |
| (ed.), <cite>Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia</cite> (2006), p. 349-50, 357-8.</li> |
| <li>Cassius Dio, Roman History, 60.19-21; Cornelius Tacitus, <cite>The Annals</cite>, 12.32-39; Suetonius, <cite>The Lives of the Caesars: Caligula</cite>, |
| 44; An introduction to British Celtic coinage, from the online <cite>Celtic Coin Index</cite>, maintained by Oxford University: http://web.arch.ox.ac.uk/coins/ccindex.htm.</li> |
| <li>M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), pp. 100-112, 140-146.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2.</li> |
| <li>R.S.O Tomlin, Roman Leicester, a corrigendum: for <q>Coritani</q>, should we now read <q>Corieltauvi</q> ?, <cite>Transactions of the Leicestershire |
| Architectural and Archaeological Society</cite>, vol. 58 (1983), pp. 1-5.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2. The name appears on their coins with an initial E</li> |
| <li>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V.21.</li> |
| <li>T. Codrington, <cite>The Roman Roads in Britain</cite> (1903), introduction; I.A. Richmond and O.G.S. Crawford, The British Section of the Ravenna |
| Cosmography, <cite>Archaeologia</cite>, vol. 93 (1949) pp.1-50.</li> |
| <li>Tacitus, <cite>Agricola</cite>, 16; Cassius Dio, <cite>Roman History</cite>, 62.1-12.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; J. T. Koch, <cite>An Atlas for Celtic Studies</cite> (2007), map 15.6; J. T. Koch, <cite>Celtic |
| Culture: a historical encyclopedia</cite> (2006), p. 1362.</li> |
| <li>Tacitus, <cite>Agricola</cite> and <cite>Germania</cite>, trans. H. Mattingly, with notes by J.B. Rives (2009), Agricola 14, and note 48.</li> |
| <li>B. Collingwood and R.P. Wright (eds.), <cite>The Roman Inscriptions of Britain</cite> (1965), no. 91.</li> |
| <li>Claudius Ptolemy, <cite>The Geography</cite>, II.2; K. Cameron, <cite>English Place Names</cite> (1996), p.34.</li> |
| <li>M. Russell, <cite>Bloodline: The Celtic kings of Roman Britain</cite> (2010), p. 21.</li> |
| <li>Caesar, <cite>Gallic Wars</cite>, V. 20.</li> |
| <li>An introduction to British Celtic coinage, from the online <cite>Celtic Coin Index</cite>, maintained by Oxford University: http://web.arch.ox.ac.uk/coins/ccindex.htm; |
| <cite>Coins of England and the United Kingdom: Spink Standard Catalogue of British Coins</cite> 37th ed. (2002), no. 46; Cassius Dio, Roman History, |
| 60.21.</li> |
| <li>J. Wacher, <cite>The Towns of Roman Britain</cite>, 2nd edn. (1995), pp. 112-132, 207-214 and figs.46 and 94; G. de la Bedoyere, <cite>Roman Towns in |
| Britain</cite>, 2nd edn. (2003), appendix 1.</li> |
| </ol> |
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